International Quarterly of Foreign Relations

International Quarterly of Foreign Relations

Artificial Intelligence Governance in the Digital Era: Evaluating U.S. Strategies and Approaches

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Saeid Soleimanzadeh 1
Mohsen Eslami 2
Masoud Mousavi Shafaee 3
Vali Golmohammadi 4
1 PhD in International Relations from Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
2 Associate Professor of International Relations, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
3 Associate Professor of International Relations at Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
4 Assistant Professor of International Relations, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
10.22034/fr.2024.458717.1531
Abstract
What is the United States' approach to artificial intelligence governance? This study contributes to a detailed understanding of AI governance in the United States by examining its strategies and approaches. The inquiry begins with an exploration of the historical context of technology policy in the United States, demonstrating how specific elements of political culture have significantly influenced US technological supremacy. The research subsequently evaluates key opportunities and challenges presented by artificial intelligence, particularly at strategic dimensions. The central argument asserts that U.S. AI policies can be classified into two distinct categories: national (government-oriented) and local (market-oriented). The government-oriented approach is developed and implemented by federal governments, while the market-oriented approach is largely shaped and executed by state governments and major technology corporations. Consequently, artificial intelligence governance in the United States arises from the synergy of national and local policies, each aiding the persistence of US leadership in AI by promoting "national security" and "economic development." This research adopts the "technopolitics" paradigm as a new mechanism to illuminate the interconnectedness between technology and politics, and utilizes system, state, group, and individual levels of analysis to address the main question.
Keywords
US
Technopolitics
Governance
Strategies
Approaches
Digital Technology
Artificial Intelligence

Subjects

  • Allen, G., & Chan, T. (2017). Artificial Intelligence and National Security. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/AI%20NatSec%20-%20final.pdf
  • Altmann, J., & Sauer, F. (2017). Autonomous weapon systems and strategic stability. Survival, 59(5), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2017.1375263
  • Atkinson, R., Muro, M., & Whiton, J. (2019). The case for growth centers: How to spread tech innovation across America. In Brookings Institution. https://www2.itif.org/2019-growth-centers.pdf?_ga=2.91766041.2018691292.1597217719-228494400.1597217.
  • Barrett, B. (2018). Amazon’s Facial Recognition System Mistakes Members of Congress for Mugshots. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/amazon-facial-recognition-congress-bias-law-enforcement/
  • (2024). US State-by-state Artificial Intelligence Legislation Snapshot. www.bclplaw.com. https://www.bclplaw.com/en-US/events-insights-news/2023-state-by-state-artificial-intelligence-legislation-snapshot.html
  • Bornstein, A. M. (2016). Is Artificial Intelligence Permanently Inscrutable? Nautilus. https://nautil.us/issue/40/learning/is-artificial-intelligence-permanently-inscrutable
  • Bremmer, I. (2021). The Technopolar Moment: How Digital Powers Will Reshape the Global Order. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/ian-bremmer-big-tech-global-order
  • Denning, P., Drusinsky, D., & Bret Michael, J. (2021). Military Intelligent Systems Pose Strategic Dilemmas. U.S. Naval Institute. https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2021/april/military-intelligent-systems-pose-strategic-dilemmas
  • (2018). Summary of the 2018 department of defense artificial intelligence strategy: harnessing AI to advance our security and prosperity. Department of Defense. https://media.defense.gov/2019/Feb/12/2002088963/-1/-1/1/SUMMARY-OF-DOD-AI-STRATEGY.PDF
  • Drezner, D. W. (2019). ‘Technological Change and International Relations’. International Relations. 33(2). 1–18.
  • Durand, C. (2020). Technoféodalisme: Critique de l’économie Numérique. Paris: La Dé-couverte.
  • P.N. and Hecht, G. (2010). History and the Technopolitics of Identity: The Case of Apartheid South Africa, Journal of Southern African Studies, Volume 36, Number 3, September 2010.
  • (2016). Artificial Intelligence, Automation, and the Economy. In obamawhitehouse.archives.gov. Executive Office of the President. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/documents/Artificial-Intelligence-Automation-Economy.PDF
  • Eriksson, J., & Giacomello, G. (2007). Introduction: Closing the gap between International Relations theory and studies of digital-age security. In International Relations and Security in the Digital Age (pp. 1–28). Routledge.
  • Eversden, A. (2020). Deloitte wins $106 million contract with the Pentagon’s AI hub. C4ISRNet. https://www.c4isrnet.com/artificial-intelligence/2020/08/12/deloitte-wins-106-million-contract-with-the-pentagons-ai-hub/
  • Fritsch, S. (2014). Conceptualizing the ambivalent role of technology in international relations: between systemic change and continuity. In Global power shift (pp. 115–138). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55007-2_6
  • Gagliardone, I. (2014). «A Country in Order»: Technopolitics, Nation Building, and the Development of ICT in Ethiopia. Information Technologies & International Development, 10(1), 3–19, Spring 2014.
  • Gehlhaus, D., & Koslosky, L. (2022). Training Tomorrow’s AI Workforce: cset.georgetown.edu. Center for Security and Emerging Technology. https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/training-tomorrows-ai-workforce/
  • Ghosh, P. (2019). Max Weber’s Ethics for the Modern World. Oxford University Press eBooks, 312–333. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190679545.013.18
  • Harari, Y. N. (2017). Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow. HarperCollins.
  • Harper, J. (2018). Artificial Intelligence to Sort Through ISR Data Glut. https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2018/1/16/artificial-intelligence-to--sort-through-isr-data-glut
  • Hine, E., & Floridi, L. (2022). Artificial intelligence with American values and Chinese characteristics: a comparative analysis of American and Chinese governmental AI policies. AI & SOCIETY, 39(1), 257–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-022-01499-8
  • Hoijtink, M., Leese, M. (2019). Technology and Agency in International Relations, Abingdon: Routledge.
  • (2024). What States are Making Moves in US AI Regulation in 2024? www.holisticai.com. https://www.holisticai.com/blog/what-states-are-making-moves-in-us-ai-regulation-2024
  • Holland Michel, A. (2020). ‘The Black Box, Unlocked: Predictability and Understandability in Military AI. In UNIDIR. United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. https://doi.org/10.37559/SecTec/20/AI1
  • Horowitz, M. C. (2018). Artificial intelligence, international competition, and the balance of power. Texas National Security Review, 1(3), 37–57.
  • Horowitz, M., C. Allen, G., B. Kania, E., & Scharre, P. (2018). Strategic Competition in an Era of Artificial Intelligence. Center for a New American Security. https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/strategic-competition-in-an-era-of-artificial-intelligence
  • Hughes, J. (2006). Human Enhancement and the emergent technopolitics of the 21st century. In: W. S.Bainbridge and M.C. Roco, (eds.) Managing Nano-Bio-In­fo-Cogno Innovations: Converging Technologies in Society, 285–307. © 2006 Springer.
  • Ilachinski, A. (2017). AI, Robots, and Swarms: Issues, Questions, and Recommended Studies. In www.cna.org. Center for Naval Analysis. https://www.cna.org/reports/2017/DRM-2017-U-014796-Final.pdf
  • Jandrić, P., & Kuzmanić, A. (2020). Uncanny. Postdigital Science and Education, 2(2), 239–244.
  • Jensen, B. M., Whyte, C., & Cuomo, S. (2020). Algorithms at war: The promise, peril, and limits of artificial intelligence. International Studies Review, 22(3), 526–550.
  • Johnson, J. (2020). Artificial Intelligence, Drone Swarming, and Escalation Risks in Future Warfare. RUSI Journal, 165(2), 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071847.2020.1752026
  • Kania, E. (2017). Battlefield Singularity: Artificial Intelligence, Military Revolution, and China’s Future Military Power. Center for a New American Security. https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/files.cnas.org/documents/Battlefield-Singularity-November-2017.pdf?mtime=20171129235805&focal=none
  • Kharpal, A. (2016). Apple vs FBI: All you need to know. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2016/03/29/apple-vs-fbi-all-you-need-to-know.html
  • Kim, H. C. (1977). The Relationship of Protestant Ethic Beliefs and Values to Achievement. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 16(3), 255. https://doi.org/10.2307/1385696
  • Knight, W. (2018). Here’s how the US needs to prepare for the age of artificial intelligence. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/04/06/240935/heres-how-the-us-needs-to-prepare-for-the-age-of-artificial-intelligence/
  • Kundu, R. (2022). Domain Adaptation in Computer Vision: Everything You Need to Know. v7labs. https://www.v7labs.com/blog/domain-adaptation-guide
  • Lange, K. (2023). Adaptive AI: Components, Use Cases, & Ethics. Splunk. https://www.splunk.com/en_us/blog/learn/adaptive-ai.html
  • Leese, M., Hoijtink, M. (2019). ‘How (not) to talk about technology: international relations and the question of agency’. Technology and Agency in International Relations, Abingdon: Routledge 1–23.
  • Marx, P. (2022). Elon Musk’s useful philosopher. New Statesman. https://www.newstatesman.com/ideas/2022/11/elon-musk-william-macaskill-useful-philosopher
  • Mayer, M., Carpes M., Knoblich R. (2014). ‘A toolbox for studying the global politics of science and technology’, The Global Politics of Science and Technology – Vol. 2: Perspectives, Cases and Methods, Heidelberg: Springer. 1–17.
  • McCarthy, D. R. (2018). Technology and World Politics: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge.
  • Metz, C. (2016). In Two Moves, AlphaGo and Lee Sedol Redefined the Future. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/2016/03/two-moves-alphago-lee-sedol-redefined-future/
  • Münch, R. (2001). The ethics of modernity: Formation and transformation in Britain, France, Germany, and the United States. Rowman & Littlefield.
  • Newlove-Eriksson, L. M., & Eriksson, J. (2021). Technological megashift and the EU: threats, vulnerabilities and fragmented responsibilities. In Springer eBooks (pp. 27–55). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63672-2_2
  • Nordrum, A. (2016). Darpa Invites Techies to Turn Off-the-Shelf Products Into Weapons in New ‘Improv’ Challenge. IEEE Spectrum. https://spectrum.ieee.org/darpa-invites-techies-to-turn-offtheshelf-products-into-weapons-in-new-improv-challenge
  • (2021). Final Report. National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence. https://assets.foleon.com/eu-central-1/de-uploads-7e3kk3/48187/nscai_full_report_digital.04d6b124173c.pdf
  • (2016a). PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. In obamawhitehouse.archives.gov. National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/whitehouse_files/microsites/ostp/NSTC/preparing_for_the_future_of_ai.pdf
  • (2016b). The National Artificial Intelligence Research and Development Strategic Plan. In www.nitrd.gov. National Science and Technology Council. https://www.nitrd.gov/pubs/national_ai_rd_strategic_plan.pdf
  • Nye, D. (1994). American Technological sublime. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • O'neil, C. (2017). Weapons of math destruction: How big data increases inequality and threatens democracy. Crown.
  • (2018). Summary of the 2018 White House Summit on Artificial Intelligence for American Industry. In www.nitrd.gov. The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy. https://www.nitrd.gov/nitrdgroups/images/2/23/Summary-Report-of-White-House-AI-Summit.pdf
  • Parker, L. (2020). The American AI Initiative: The U.S. strategy for leadership in artificial intelligence. oecd.ai. https://oecd.ai/en/wonk/the-american-ai-initiative-the-u-s-strategy-for-leadership-in-rtificial-intelligence
  • Potember, R. (2017). Perspectives on Research in Artificial Intelligence and Artificial General Intelligence Relevant to DoD. Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering. https://irp.fas.org/agency/dod/jason/ai-dod.pdf
  • Rasmussen, T. (2007). Techno-politics, Internet Governance and some challenges fac­ing the Internet. Oxford Internet Institute, Research Report 15, October 2007.
  • Rushkoff, D. (2023). ‘We will coup whoever we want!’: the unbearable hubris of Musk and the billionaire tech bros. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/nov/25/we-will-coup-whoever-we-want-the-unbearable-hubris-of-musk-and-the-billionaire-tech-bros
  • Ryan, M. (2017). Building a Future: Integrated Human-Machine Military Organization. The Strategy Bridge. https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2017/12/11/building-a-future-integrated-human-machine-military-organization
  • Scharre, P. (2016). Autonomous Weapons and Operational Risk. Center for a New American Security. https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/files.cnas.org/hero/documents/CNAS_Autonomous-weapons-operational-risk.pdf
  • Scharre, P. (2017). The Lethal Autonomous Weapons Governmental Meeting (Part I: Coping with Rapid Technological Change). Just Security. https://www.justsecurity.org/46889/lethal-autonomous-weapons-governmental-meeting-part-i-coping-rapid-technological-change/
  • Singh, J. P., Carr, M., & Marlin-Bennett, R. (2019). Science, Technology, and art in international relations. In Routledge eBooks. Routledge.
  • Srnicek, N. (2018). ‘New materialism and posthumanism: bodies, brains and complex causality’, in Daniel R. McCarthy (ed.), Technology and World Politics, Abingdon: Routledge. 84–99.
  • Svenmarck, P., Luotsinen, L., Nilsson, M., & Schubert, J. (2018). Possibilities and Challenges for Artificial Intelligence in Military Applications. In NATO Big Data and Artificial Intelligence for Military Decision Making Specialists’ Meeting. https://www.foi.se/download/18.7fd35d7f166c56ebe0b1005f/1542623791600/Possibilities-and-challenges_FOI-S--5864--SE.pdf
  • Swisher, K. (2020). Opinion | Elon Musk: ‘A.I. Doesn’t Need to Hate Us to Destroy Us.’ The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/28/opinion/sway-kara-swisher-elon-musk.html
  • Taylor, C. (2023). ‘Sapiens’ author says AI is an alien threat that could wipe us out: ‘Instead of coming from outer space, it’s coming from California.’ Fortune. https://fortune.com/2023/09/12/sapiens-author-yuval-noah-harari-ai-alien-threat-wipe-out-humanity-elon-musk-steve-wozniak-risk-cogx-festival/
  • Tiku, N. (2018). Amazon’s Jeff Bezos Says Tech Companies Should Work With the Pentagon. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/amazons-jeff-bezos-says-tech-companies-should-work-with-the-pentagon/
  • Toews, R. (2021). Artificial intelligence and the end of work. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/robtoews/2021/02/15/artificial-intelligence-and-the-end-of-work/
  • Torossian, B., Bekkers, F., & Sweijs, T. (2020). The Military Applicability of Robotic and Autonomous Systems. In HCSS. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. https://hcss.nl/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/RAS_Military_Applicability_Final_.pdf
  • Trotti, C. (2022). What does the future of autonomous warfare look like? Four critical questions, answered. Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/content-series/automating-the-fight/what-does-the-future-of-autonomous-warfare-look-like-four-critical-questions-answered/
  • Van Den Bosch, E. (2017). Human Machine Decision Making and Trust. In Closer than You Think: The Implications of the Third Offset Strategy for the US Army (p. 111). US Army War College Press.
  • Varoufakis, Y. (2024). Technofeudalism: What Killed Capitalism. Melville House.
  • Wakabayashi, D., & Shane, S. (2018). Google Will Not Renew Pentagon Contract That Upset Employees. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/01/technology/google-pentagon-project-maven.html
  • Walt, S. (2021). Big Tech Won’t Remake the Global Order. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/11/08/big-tech-wont-remake-the-global-order/
  • Weber, M. (2005). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. In Routledge eBooks (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203995808
  • White House. (2020). American Artificial Intelligence Initiative: Year One Annual Report. Office of Science and Technology Policy. https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/American-AI-Initiative-One-Year-Annual-Report.pdf
  • White House. (2023). Executive Order on the Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence. www.whitehouse.gov. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2023/10/30/executive-order-on-the-safe-secure-and-trustworthy-development-and-use-of-artificial-intelligence/
  • Wilner, A., Babb, C. (2021). New Technologies and Deterrence: Artificial Intelligence and Adversarial Behaviour. In: Osinga, F., Sweijs, T. (eds) NL ARMS Netherlands Annual Review of Military Studies 2020. NL ARMS. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-419-8_21
  • Wirtschafter, V. (2024). The implications of the AI boom for nonstate armed actors. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-implications-of-the-ai-boom-for-nonstate-armed-actors/
  • Wright, R. (2023). Artificial Intelligence in the States: Emerging Legislation - The Council of State Governments. The Council of State Governments. https://www.csg.org/2023/12/06/artificial-intelligence-in-the-states-emerging-legislation/